Commodore Perry and the Black Ships of 1853

Discover why four American warships arriving near Edo in 1853 became one of the best-known moments in Japanese history, and what followed in the years afterward.

Published October 19, 2026 at 1:04 PM JST | By Tokyo Paul

Quick answer: In July 1853, U.S. Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry sailed into Edo Bay with four ships to deliver a letter from President Millard Fillmore asking Japan to open its ports. Japanese observers called the vessels kurofune, or "black ships." Perry returned in 1854, and the Convention of Kanagawa opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships.

Why the ships arrived

For more than two centuries the Tokugawa shogunate had limited foreign contact. Trade and diplomacy were handled through a small number of channels, with Nagasaki as the licensed port for foreign ships. By the mid-nineteenth century, American whaling and merchant vessels were crossing the Pacific in growing numbers, and steamships on long routes needed coal and supplies. The United States government wanted safe harbors in Japan for these reasons.

President Millard Fillmore's administration sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry, a naval officer born in 1794, to carry a letter proposing friendly relations and port access. Britannica describes his expedition of 1853 and 1854 as a mission to press Japan to open trade and diplomatic relations with Western nations after a long period of seclusion.

Japan was not entirely uninformed. Through the Dutch trading post at Nagasaki, shogunate officials received reports about world affairs, including news of steamships and of conflicts in Asia. The arrival of the squadron was a surprise in its timing and scale, but the wider changes in the world were already known to some officials and scholars.

July 1853 at Uraga and Kurihama

Perry's squadron reached Uraga, at the entrance to Edo Bay, on July 8, 1853. It consisted of four ships: the steam frigates Mississippi and Susquehanna and the sailing ships Plymouth and Saratoga. Japanese officials asked him to go to Nagasaki, the usual port for foreign visitors, but Perry declined and asked to deliver his letter near the capital.

An agreement was reached that the letter could be handed over on shore. On July 14, 1853, Perry landed at nearby Kurihama and presented the letter to shogunate officials. He left Edo Bay on July 17 for the China coast, saying that he would come back for a reply. The senior councillor Abe Masahiro had decided that receiving the letter would not violate Japanese sovereignty, and two shogunate officials accepted it.

The meeting itself was brief and formal. For many people in the Edo Bay area, however, the sight of large steamships moving without sails and spreading dark smoke was a striking introduction to a new age of technology, and word of the visit spread quickly to other parts of the country.

Why they were called the black ships

The term kurofune (black ships) had been used earlier for Western vessels, in part because Portuguese ships of earlier centuries had hulls coated with black pitch. In 1853 the name was applied again to Perry's squadron. His steamships were powered by coal-fired engines that gave off thick black smoke, which added to the visual impression.

The ships could move without needing a favorable wind, a feature that observers found remarkable. Prints and paintings from the time, produced in large numbers, show the vessels with details drawn from first-hand viewing and from rumor. These images are still collected and displayed today, and they remain a popular way to teach the story.

Many of these pictures were made by artists for local audiences who could not see the ships in person. They vary in accuracy, and some show the ships with exaggerated features. Taken together, they give a record of how people in Japan reacted and how the visit passed into popular memory.

Debate within the shogunate

Faced with the letter, the shogunate took the unusual step of seeking opinions from daimyo and officials about how to respond. Some favored resistance, some favored careful negotiation, and some favored time to strengthen defenses. The discussion itself was a sign of changing political habits, since earlier shogunate decisions on foreign policy had generally been made within a small circle.

When Perry came back in February 1854 with a larger force, the shogunate chose to avoid conflict and negotiate. He landed near Kanagawa, close to present-day Yokohama, on March 8, 1854. The talks were led on the Japanese side by Hayashi Akira, a senior scholar and official.

The Convention of Kanagawa, 1854

The treaty signed on March 31, 1854 is known as the Convention of Kanagawa, or the Treaty of Peace and Amity. Perry signed for the United States and Hayashi Akira signed for Japan. Under its terms, the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate were opened to American ships, which could obtain supplies there.

The Japanese text and the English text were prepared with the help of interpreters, and Dutch served as a common language for much of the negotiation, according to many accounts. The careful drafting shows how much attention both sides gave to the wording of this first agreement.

The agreement was limited in scope. It did not create full trade relations, but it provided a foundation for later talks. Consul Townsend Harris, stationed at Shimoda, negotiated a broader Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which was signed on July 29, 1858. Within five years of the first treaty, Japan had also signed agreements with other Western countries.

What changed afterward

The arrival of foreign ships set off intense discussion in Japan about defense, trade and government. Within about fifteen years the shogunate had ended, and in 1868 the Meiji government began a period of rapid modernization. Historians do not trace this outcome to a single cause, but they commonly describe the Perry expeditions as a major turning point in the sequence of events.

In Japan today, the story is told in school lessons, local museums and festivals. The ports of Shimoda and Hakodate remain closely linked to the history, and Kurihama, where the first letter was delivered, is also associated with the landing. Visitors should check current event dates and opening hours before planning a trip.

Reading about Perry with balance

Accounts of the Black Ships differ depending on who wrote them. American sources often highlight the diplomatic achievement, while Japanese sources often focus on how the shogunate and domains responded and what the opening meant for the country. Reading both gives a fuller picture.

Dates may also differ by a day or two in older books because of the conversion between the Japanese lunar calendar and the Western calendar. The dates in this guide follow widely used reference works, but a museum label or textbook may present them a little differently.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why were they called black ships?

The name kurofune had been applied to Western ships before 1853, partly because earlier Portuguese ships were coated with black pitch. Perry's steamships also released dark smoke from their coal-fired engines, and the name stuck as a lasting symbol of the arrival.

How many ships did Perry bring in 1853?

Perry's squadron in July 1853 had four ships: Mississippi, Susquehanna, Plymouth and Saratoga. When he returned in February 1854, he brought a larger force, and sources give slightly different numbers for it, so the exact count is best checked in a specific reference work.

Did Perry force Japan to open?

Perry arrived with armed ships and a letter requesting an agreement, and Japanese leaders chose to negotiate in 1854 instead of fighting. The treaty that followed opened two ports to American ships and began a series of changes that led to broader foreign relations.

Want to go deeper? Tokyo Paul's book Manga-Style Japanese History: Shoguns, Samurai & Sake in 12 Stories is available on Amazon.

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